世界经济总结资料 世界经济
World Economy TOPIC Globalisation ----------- References: Essay-Globalisation and Economic Growth Essay-Globalisation and the Rural Poor Essay-Is Globalisation in Danger PPT-introduction.ppt PPT-developing countries.ppt PPT-transformation economies.ppt Textbook-Ch9 Developing countries Textbook-Ch10 The Transformation countries ----------- 全球化的定义 Liberalization of trade, investment, production, and other factors. 全球化的成因 1. The first and perhaps more profound influence is technological change. 2. Multilateral trade negotiations resulted in the continuing liberalization of trade and investment. 3. Globalization has also been promoted by the widespread liberalization of investment transactions and the development of international financial markets. 4. Falls in transport and communications costs. 全球化的优点 1.Productivity increases faster when countries produce goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Living standards can increase more rapidly. 2. Global competition and cheap imports keep a constraint on prices, so inflation is less likely to disrupt economic growth. 3. An open economy promotes technological development and innovation, with fresh ideas from abroad. 4. Jobs in export industries tend to pay about 15% more than jobs in import-competing industries. 5. Unfettered capital movements provide the US access to foreign investment and maintain low interest rates. 全球化的缺点 Globalization can make the domestic economy vulnerable to disturbances initiated overseas. 1.Millions of Americans have lost jobs because of imports or shifts in production abroad. Most find new jobs that pay less. 2. Millions of other Americans fear getting laid off, especially at those firms operating in Import-competing industries. 3.Workers face demands of wage concessions from their employers, which often threaten to export jobs abroad if wage concessions are not agreed to. 4. Besides blue-collar jobs, service and white-collar jobs are increasingly vulnerable to operations being sent overseas. 5.American employees can lose their competitiveness when companies build state-of-the-art factories in low-wage countries, making them as productive as those in the US. 全球化导致“分化大时代”的到来? I don't think so.The divergence claim is weakened.The world income inequality peaked around 1970 has declined somewhat in the era of unprecedented globalisation since then.This outcome has been driven primarily by the much improved growth performance of two developing countries,China and India. 全球化对经济增长是否有利? There would be a cautious response. First,distance still mattered.Trade flows, technology flows, financial flows and capital movements are all much reduced the greater is the distance between countries.Moreover, distance from markets and sources of supply is highly correlated with income levels. Second,institutional quality also has a very strong influence on growth and levels of income, particularly with respect to capital markets, both as a key influence on growth performance and in terms of facilitating successful participation in globalised finance. At the same time, there clearly is an important role for institutional diversity in rapid catch-up growth. 全球化使收入不平等减弱甚至最终趋同? Lucas argues that: 1 While the 20th century was marked by widening international income inequality, the 21st century will see this reversed. 2 While capital is fully mobile internationally, international income inequalities should be rapidly reduced as capital flows from rich to poor countries. 3 The process of economic catch-up and convergence ensues which exhibits an inverse correlation between initial income levels and subsequent growth of real income per head. Lucas model: The model is shown to exhibit rising international inequality of incomes in the 20th followed by a strong turnaround in the 21st century.That is to say,countries that start growing later have faster initial growth and then experience growth proportional to income gap with leader. Lucas criticize: a.The new economic geography school sees the process of development not as the steady convergence of the poor to the rich, but rather as a rapid transition of a select few who are favoured by location. b.The new institutional economic history view pioneered that institutions are crucial in informing decisions to invest and/or to innovate. But the tradition also stresses that bad institutions are frequently persistent and can be virtually impossible to reform because of path dependency. In the absence of well-defined property rights,enforceable contracts and government, the neoclassical catch-up process will be aborted. c.Government also has a crucial role to play in combatting coordination failures and instability in the financial system, both of which potentially undermine investment. d.The distribution of the gains from international trade deserve some attention.A limiting case would be one of immiserising growth in which increases in productive potential were more than offset by declines in export prices and loss of purchasing power over imports. 全球化对农业的影响 Globalisation declined information and communications costs,trade protectionism,tariff and non-tariff barriers.While the expansion of agricultural trade has lagged,reflecting the generally lower income elasticities of demand for primary goods,and its share in total world trade has been fallen.In short,agricultural liberalisation has so far made limited progress. 1 Agricultural liberalisation model is not working well because it is noe being applied,i.e. because of extensive continued protectionism within OECD. 2 Similarly,within many developing countries liberalisation remains partial,industrial protectionism and other other anti-agricultural biases persist,and market outcomes often differ markedly from the theoretical ideal. 3 Any residual tendency for the forces of globalisation to favour developing country labour-intensive agriculture tends to be offset by biases in technological progress in favour of temperate crops and capital- and skill-intensity. 全球化对贫困的影响 Globalisation is liable to change the welfare of the rurul poor by influencing the efficiency of resource use,the pace of economic growth,and the distribution of income,through their impact on technologies,on the security of livelihoods,on policies and on the provision of public goods. Ways of affecting the welfare of rural poor: static effciency effects;dynamic growth effects;technological progress;distributional effects;insecurity effects;policy effects. GOODs:There is a huge potential benefit,for example,from an acceleration of growth following from fuller integration into a rapidly expanding market for exports.There are benefits to be had from more productive resource uses,from improved access to technological advances and from policy improvements induced by exogenous pressures. BADs:Against these,there are very real dangers that the rural poor will be left behind;that they will not have access to the knowledge and other assets necessary for success in an increasingly competitive world;that food security may be reduced;that continuing political and policy biases will diminish their prospects of sharing in the potential benefits;and that globalisation will be associated with widening income disparties. There are some determinants of outcomes: exogenous factors;market access;market failures;the assets of the rural poor. A variety of factors prevent the rural poor from responding as well as they might to market opportunities and heightened competition:the forces limiting their market access(poor information,weak institutions,poor infrastructure,etc.) and their inadequate command over assets that would raise their market effectiveness,notably education,land,water and finance. A tendency towards intensifying inequalities of income and wealth,as well as heighted instability and uncertainly,prevent general economic progress from being translated fully into improvements in the well-being of the poor. 对全球化的威胁 Ideas; Interests; Institutional Relations; Instability. 国际金融危机及其原因 Big problems in international financial system:from dollar shortage to dollar glut. Reasons for U.S. chronic international deficit: too much inflation at home; overgenerosity in the aid and military programs; lack of trust in the dollar; the rapid growth of productivity abroad; high investment abroad by American firms; quadrupled price of OPEC oil. 全球化和区域一体化的关系 1 Regional integration and globalisation are staggered to promote each other. Regional integration is part of globalisation, globalisation is the development direction of regional integration. 2 Globalisation has a broader scope than regional integration, and regional integration has a higher level than the globalisation. 3 The strengthening of regional integration will improve the position and enhance the force of the members in the process of globalisation. 4 Regional integration and globalisation are both the means of transnational optimal allocation. As a result of the regional blocs have similar geography,politics,income,development level and economic advantages,they are more easy to achieve the free movement of factors of production,accordingly paving the way for globalisation. 发达国家二战后格局发展历程 Stage 1 recovery of world economy (1945--1952) Characteristics:increasing GNP growth for main market economy countries Stage 2 high-speed growth of world economy (1953-1973) Characteristics:high-speed growth Reasons: third scientific and technological revolution;adjustment of production relations. Stage 3 stagflation (1973-1982) Characteristics:lower GDP growth rate and higher CPI Reasons:deficit finance; debt increase; monetary supply increase; increasing petroleum price; surplus production capability; international facors. Stage 4 economic readjustment and reform period (1983) Characteristics:reduce government expenditure;lower tax rate;reduce monetary supply;enterprise privately owned;industrial structure readjustment 发展中国家的定义 Underdeveloped economically, in the transition from traditional economy to modernezed economy.In a broader sense, the rest of the nations and regions except developed countries. 发展中国家的特征 1 Undeveloped productivity: agriculture; industry; science &technology 2 Dualist structure 3 Imperfect market system and mechanism 4 National capitalism 5 Dependence on DCs 发展中国家的不发达的原因 1 Excessive population growth 2 Missing institutions 3 Lack of capital formation 4 No entrepreneurship 5 National debt 6 Vicious circle 7 Different endowment conditions 发展中国家的发展策略 1 Import substitute(inward) Definition:This policy was directed at replacing imports by domestic goods. Measures: Protectionist instruments:import duties &import licenses; Control on foreign exchange; Revalue domestic currency; Preferential policies for new industries. Performance: Faster development of national industries; Lack of scale of economies, difficult to access international market; Less export of agricultural products, decreasing exchange foreign income; Increased demands for imported equipments, technology & parts, imbalanced payment of account. Countries and outcomes: Latin America,failed. 2 Export diversification(outward) Definition:This policy was to expose to export sectors to international competition and diversify exports. Measures: Loosen trade restriction; Labor-intensive products to capital-intensive & technology-intensive products; Flexible trading system with government and non-government organizations involved; Found export processing areas. Performance: Increase interest rate; Improve the quality of education; Government-guided management system; Combination of economic growth &reasonable distribution of income. Countries and outcomes: Asia,succeeded. 转型国家的定义 Countries gave up central planning and switched over to a market economy approach. 转型国家的特征 1 Institutional framework: Law of contract Law of enterprises Property rights Two-tier banking system 2 Macroeconomic stabilization: Monetary stabilization: inflation; currency reform and convertibility; tight budget restrain; reduction of government budget deficits 3 Real adjustment of firms: Start of micro-reforms: Autonomy of firms Abolition of the government export monopoly Markets instead of central planning Free market entry Implementation of micro-reforms: Freeing of prices (on commodity and factor markets) Free trade, no subsidies for tradable goods Commercialization of firms Privatization of enterprises New enterprises 转型国家经济发展的J曲线效应 The transformation of a centrally planned economy involves a collapse of national output. Reasons: 1 A crucial reason for this breakdown is that the capital stock of the transformation country that was obsolete. Therefore,the reform countries have to rebuild their capital stock. But it is:time-costing;involving adjustment costs;existing human capital integrated. 2 institutional vacuum at the beginning. 转型国家的经济政策 1 Privitization: mainly coupon privitization 2 The tightening of the budget restraint: transformation countries are often characterized by high budget deficits. 3 Current account deficits; 4 Inflation. ----------- TOPIC International Institutions ----------- References: PPT-international institutions.ppt PPT-WTO &international trade policy.ppt Textbook-Ch14 International Institutions Textbook-Ch5 International trade policy ----------- IMF的目标 1 Convertibility: The IMF determined the circumstances in which countries made their national currencies convertible with other currencies. 2 The exchange rate regime: The IMF decided on the ways in which currency values were to be corrected,and the choice to be made between fixed and flexible exchange rates. 3 Balance of payments adjustment: The IMF resolved how balance of payments surpluses and deficits were to be accommodated between countries. 4 Reserve assets (first SDRs): The IMF held reserves from which debtor countries could borrow in limited quantities.In 1970 the first special drawing rights(SDRs) were allocated to memebers,and IMF is a large holder of gold reserves. 5 International management: The IMF provided machinery for consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 改革后IMF的角色 1 Still had a role to play in relation to convertibility, exchange rates & balance of payments adjustment. 2 Responsibility of ensuring that: not engage in destabilising speculation over exchange rates; not attempt to influence artificially the value of exchange rates in order to gain a trading advantage. 斯蒂格利茨对IMF改革的提案 To disclose the poverty and unemployment impact of its conditionality requirement; To pay more attention to improving safety nets in vulnerable countries; To deal with financial crisis is through bankruptcy,not through IMF-financed bailout of creditors; Responses to financial crisis in developing and transition economies need to be placed within the social and political context. 华盛顿共识的主要内容 The emphasis is on ‘market-friendly’ economic reform. For the IMF the most important aspects of reform are still geared to stabilization,i.e. Fiscal and monetary austerity; Exchange rate liberalisation; Relaxation of controls on trade; Relaxation of controls on capital movements WB的目标 1 Changed substantially since its founding to finance post-war reconstruction in continental Europe;granting loans to developing countries; 2 It borrows on world markets and lends to needy countries for development purposes. WB和IMF理论上的区别 Theoretical difference of the IMF & WB: WB-the institution which provides long-term development finance for developing and transition economies at relatively low rates of interest; IMF-the institution which provides developing and transitional countries with short-term finance to tide over balance of payments problems. WB的发展框架 Require partnership Localization Urbanization Development challenges, principally poverty, hunger, ill-health, lack of housing & illiteracy GATT的目标 Its objective was to prevent a return to the protectionist measures which had so damaged world trade during the 1930s. 乌拉圭回合的主要条款 Main provisions in Uruguay Round: The multifibre arrangement (MFA)to be phased out; Agriculture to be brought within the provisions of GATT; rules to cover intellectual property rights(IPRs); for the 1st time to cover services; voluntary export restraints(VERs) to be phase out. WTO的成立 The final act of the Uruguay Round established a formal organisation called the WTO to replace GATT.This is generally considered to be the most important achievement of the Uruguay Round. WTO和GATT的区别 WTO framework is superior to GATT: a single undertaking with a unified legal basis( c.f. merely a series of multilateral trading agreements); clear surveillance mechanisms to oversee trade policy; provisions for the WTO to consult with the IMF and the World Bank; all countries within WTO agree to abide by the rules(c.f. 'provisional accession protocols'). WTO对贸易集团无歧视的看法 Ways in which trade blocs can be made as non-discriminatory as possible: required to cut their tariffs against outsiders to the lowest level of any member of the trade bloc; obliged to notify the WTO well in advance; the WTO should monitor existing trade blocs very closely. WTO的最惠国原则 WTO's MFN principle:trade barriers should be lowered equally and without discrimination for all foreign trading partners. It has two deviations: special treatment for developing countries; permitting trade blocs involving industrialized countries,if the trade blocs removes tariffs and other trade restrictions on most of the trade among its members,and if its trade barriers against nonmembers do not increase on average. ----------- TOPIC Regional Integration ----------- References: Essay-Ecnomic Survey of Western Europe Essay-European Monetary Union PPT-Regional integration in the world economy.ppt PPT-History of Regional Economic Integration.ppt PPT-Characteristics of RTAs.ppt PPT-RTAs in the Atlantic.ppt PPT-(European) Economic integration.ppt PPT-EU single currency.ppt PPT-APEC.ppt Textbook-Ch11 Regional integration in the world economy Textbook-Ch11 Trade Blocs and Trade Blocks ----------- 区域一体化的五种形式及其特点 1 Preferential trade agreement (PTAs) least strict form; for certain goods among the members (sometimes even unilaterally); neither general reduction of internal tariffs nor a common external tariff within PTAs; one way (by DC to LDC) preferential arrangement; violates GATT article XXIV, but tolerated by LDC enabling clause. 2 Free-trade areas (FTAs) abolish internal tariff, but no common external tariff; elimination of tariffs and quantitative restrictions; rules of origin and strict controls of the origin of goods. 3 Customs unions abolish internal tariffs, but with a common external tariff & a common trade policy toward third countries; common level of trade barriers against nonmembers; harmonize quantitative restrictions, export subsidies and other trade distortions. 4 Common market deeper integration; free trade of goods, services and free exchange of capital and labor; labor: construction, consulting; capital: banking, financial services,and capital applies to both FDI and portfolio capital. 5 Economic union unify all their economic policies, including monetary, fiscal, welfare policies & policies toward trade and factor migration; even common currency. 区域一体化的原因 economic reasons; political reasons; geographical reasons; economic profit. 主要的区域一体化组织 1 Europe EU(European Union); EFTA(European Free Trade Association); CEFTA(The Central European Free Trade Area); 2 The America NAFTA; TAFTA(Trans-Atlantic Free Trade Area); Andean Community LAFTA (Latin American Free Trade Association); CARICOM (the Caribbean Community); FTAA(Free Trade Area of the Americas); 3 Asia-Pacific ASEAN(The Association for South-East Asian Nations); AFTA (in discussion); APEC(Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation); ANZCERTA/CER (Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement,between Australia and New Zealand); 区域一体化对经济与贸易的影响 static effects: trade creation(the net volume of new trade created by forming the trade bloc); trade diversion(the volume of trade diverted from low-cost outside exporters to higher-cost bloc-partner exporters); The gains from a trade bloc are tied to trade creation, and the losses are tied to trade diversion. dynamic effects: market effect; competition effect; investment inflow effect; expansion and deepening effect. 区域一体化集团增加贸易所得的办法 1 Two tendencies to make for greater gains from a customs union: The lower the partner costs relative to the outside-world costs, the greater the gains. Any trade diversion will be less costly. The more elastic the import demand, the greater the gains, The trade creation in response to any domestic price decline will be larger. 2 Other possible gains from a trade bloc: creating a larger market; creating scale economies; reducing prices by increasing competition; lowering costs of production by increasing competition; firm’s lowering costs by expanding their scale of production; increasing opportunities for business investments. 区域集中度的影响因素 Geographical proximity Economic Size Income level Economic system Distance and Adjacency Language Similar taste Gravity Model EU一体化进程的原因 1 peace; wish to unify after WWII; fight against USA; Japan's economy highly developed. 2 Firstly,by the ingeration of the economic policies of member states,in particular monetray and fiscal policies. Secondly,by the acceleration of market integration. Thirdly,by effectively operated as a single entity when dealing with the world's principal international economic institutions. EU一体化进程简介 1 ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community)—France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherland and Belgium—1952 2 EEC(European Economic Community) and Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community)—the six countries – 1958 3 EEC and Euratom are incorporated into EC(European Community) in 1967 4 EU (European Union)—Nov. 1st 1993 5 Five enlargements: Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland in 1973;(9) Greece in 1981;(10th) Portugal and Spain in 1986;(12) Austria,Sweden and Finland in 1995;(15) Poland,Hungary,Czech,Slovakia,Slovenia,Cyprus,Malta,Estonia, Latvia etc(25)---the most ambitious one –total population (0.45 billion)—similar economic scale with that of the US 6 Romania and Bulgaria are negotiating for joining EU EU一体化进程的四个阶段 1.preparatory and experimental stage(WWI--1957) the important role France played ; Robert Schuman(1886-1963) and Schuman Plan(1950); Treaty on ECSC(Paris Treaty)(1951)—effective in 1952 2.customs union(1958-1985) Treaty on ECSC and Treaty on Euratom(Rome Treaty)(1958); Content of Rome Treaty; Stipulation and arrangements of customs union; Achievements in the process of customs union establishment:CAP(Common Agriculture Policy) 3. common market(1986-1992) Historical Background: Single European Act—SEM(Single European Market); Schengen Agreements(Belgium,France,Germany,Luxembourg and Netherlands in 1985) 4. Economic union (since 1992) Treaty on European Union(Maastricht Treaty) EU的共同农业政策? Why so much attention was given to CAP? food shortage during WWII; two main actors in EEC --France and Germany; impacts of increasing price for agricultural products on economies; tranditional agricultural organizations Guideline for CAP: To form single market for agricultural products; To stablize market for agricultural products; To take trade protectionism policy EU一体化进程的成就 Five enlargements; Maastricht Treaty; the Stability and Growth Pact(SGP); CAP(Common Agriculture Policy); single currency market; etc. EU一体化进程所出现的问题 First of all, there is lack of democracy. Today,EU has been achieved in many areas of a supranational, but the distance from ordinary people has become more and more far away. Moreover,there is lack of consensus. Facing the problems of how to improve the competitiveness of the economy, strengthening social justice and globalisation,Internal of EU has divergent views.It is difficult to reach an agreement. Finally, there is lack of means. many institutional reforms have lagged,affecting the capacity of the expanded EU's force. 98年EU低出口增长的原因 Becasue of the instability of Asian economy which are important to EU.Meanwhile,EU look forward to a good future of Asian economy at the end of 20th century. 欧洲单一货币的发展进程 1.EMS ERM(Exchange Rate Mechanism)—core of EMS:mutually pegged exchange rates; ECU(European Currency Unit); Central exchange rate; European Monetary Co-operation Fund 2.From EMS to EMU Delors Report:three-stage process for establishment of EMU: All EU members were to join the EMS exchange rate mechanism (ERM); Exchange rate margins were to be narrowed and certain macroeconomic policy decisions placed under more centralized EU control; Replacement of national currencies by a single European currency and vesting all monetary policy decisions in a ESCB; Reasons: EU countries moved away from the EMS and toward the single shared currency for four reasons: Greater degree of European market integration; Same opportunity as Germany to participate in system-wide monetary decisions; Complete freedom of capital movements; Political stability of Europe; Convergence criteria(to join EMU): Price stability: Maximum inflation rate 1.5% above the average of the three EU member states with lowest inflation; Exchange rate stability: Stable exchange rate within the ERM without devaluing on its own initiative; Budget discipline: Maximum public-sector deficit 3% of the country’s GDP; Maximum public debt 60% of the country’s GDP. 3.ESCB(European System of Central Banks) ECB + EU National Central Banks: It consists of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt plus 12 national central banks. It conducts monetary policy for the euro zone. It is dependent on politicians in two respects: The ESCB’s members are political appointments; The Maastricht Treaty leaves exchange rate policy for the euro zone ultimately in the hands of the political authorities. 4.the Stability and Growth Pact The medium-term budgetary objective of positions close to balance or in surplus; A timetable for the imposition of financial penalties on counties that fail to correct situations of “excessive“ deficits and debt promptly enough. 5.the choice of the single currency 加入EMU的几个趋同标准 Convergence criteria(to join EMU): Price stability: Maximum inflation rate 1.5% above the average of the three EU member states with lowest inflation; Exchange rate stability: Stable exchange rate within the ERM without devaluing on its own initiative; Budget discipline: Maximum public-sector deficit 3% of the country’s GDP; Maximum public debt 60% of the country’s GDP. 欧元区有哪些国家? 11 countries:France,Germany,Spain,Portugal,Italy,Austria,Finland,Greece,Ireland,Belgium,Netherlands. 采取欧元的原因 1 To enhance Europe’s role in the world monetary system; 2 To turn the European Union into a truly unified market; 3 The single currency will facilitate trade between the participating economies. 4 The euro will also have a significant impact on the macroeconomic framework of the participating economies and,indeed,on those outside the euro-zone; 5 The euro will also have a significant impact on the global economy; 6 The euro will thus be one of the major global reserve currencies,alongside the US dollar and the Japanese yen. APEC的原则和工作框架 Principles: Comprehensiveness WTO Consistency Comparability Non-discrimination Transparency Standstill Simultaneous start, continuous process, and differentiated timetables Flexibility Cooperation APEC's Scope of work: Trade and investment liberalization Business facilitation Economic and technical cooperation (Ecotech) NAFTA的最初原则,影响和危害 Rules of origin: incredibly complex with over 200 pages with thousands of different rules for different products, many are protectionist; to guard against a firm’s ruse of doing minimal processing within the area and then claiming that the product is locally produced. The effects of NAFTA: the gains from trade creation and other effects are larger than the losses from trade diversion; all three countries will be slight net gains(Mexico- Canada- the U.S.); NAFTA will raise national incomes and even the demand for labor. Harm: the main sectors where U.S. incomes and jobs are lost to Mexican competition are less-skilled industries like apparel (clothing), field crops (tomatoes), furniture, and autos; NAFTA causes some trade diversion, esp. from Asia. Asian makers of cars, clothing, furniture, financial services, and high-tech equipment suffer losses; the losses made by the producers from the rest of the world because of NAFTA rules of origin. ----------- TOPIC Trade and Environment ----------- References: PPT-trade&environment.ppt Textbook-Ch12 Trade and the Environment ----------- 自由贸易反环境? No. Free trade permits production to be shifted to countries that have lax environmental standards.The effects are small: costs to firms of meeting environmental protection regulations are usually small; fears of unexpected liabilities in cases of accidents, general risks to corporate reputations from appearing to cause excessive harm to the environment, and the costs of meeting more stringent regulations in the future. Free trade is not inherently anti-environment. Relocation of production to avoid stringent environmental standards is small. Shifts towards freer trade cause a variety of changes, but the net effects on overall pollution usually seem to be small. 自由贸易对环境影响的效应 1 composition effect: pollution-intensive production tends to expand in the high-income industrialized countries and pollution-intensive production tends to decline inn the low-income developing countries. 2 combined size-income effects: tend to lower pollution in the industrialized countries for sulfur dioxide,suspended particulates,and carbon monoxide; tend to increase nitrogen dioxide pollution in the European Union and Japan; tend to increase pollution in the developing countries. 环境对人均收入的影响 Three basic patterns of combined size-income effect: 1 Environmental harm declines with rising income per person; 2 environmental harm rises with rising income per person; 3 The relationship is an inverted U. WTO制定的三条环保框架 Three important types of policies that may qualify for environmental exceptions: consumption of products can cause damage. production in foreign countries can cause environmental damage. there are some environmental problems that are global in scope and that ma require global solutions negotiated among many governments. 外部性的定义和表现 Definition:An externality exists when sb’s activity brings direct costs or benefits to anybody who is not part of the marketplace decision to undertake the activity. Performance:Whenever an externality exists, there is a distortion, caused by a gap between private and social costs or benefits.(SMC>MC) 改变外部性的方法和处方 Two leading strategies to attack the externality directly: use of government taxes and subsidies; changing property rights. Two sets of best-feasible prescriptions: one for the whole world acting as one government; one for a single nation unable to get cooperation from other governments. 三种外部成本来源 Trade and domestic pollution Transborder pollution Global environmental challenges 国内污染不内部化所导致的后果 If there is no policies that force market decision-makers to internalize these external costs,it leads: free trade can reduce the well-being of the country; the country can end up exporting the wrong products. 过境污染的解决方案(案例分析) The right solution: 1 a government could use the tax/subsidy approach; 2 assigning property rights to try to get the efficient solution。
A next-best solution: 3 by adopting policies toward international trade; by limiting its imports from Germany if Austria imports paper from Germany; by considering subsidizing paper exports to Germany if Austria exports paper to Germany. 全球环境所面临的挑战 extinction of species overfishing CFCs and Ozone greenhouse gases and global warming ----------- TOPIC Multinational Enterprises ----------- References: PPT-multinational enterprises.ppt Textbook-Ch14 Multinationals and Migration.ppt ----------- 跨国公司引发的不发达国家的担忧 being both the sources and the recipients of direct investment; whether flowing out DI reduces exports of products and employment opportunities at home; exploitation; inadequate access to foreign capital, technology, marketing, and management skills; whether foreigners establish undue influence and control over the local economy with DI flowing in; 限制FDI的方法 certain lines of activity including natural resources, banking, newspapers and other commuincations media, and defense industries; regulate the local operations of foreign firms (require local participations in the ownership or management; training, locally purchased components and parts, locla research, or expoets); use tax policy to influence the flows of DI and the division of the investment returns btw firms and governments; 鼓励FDI的方法 offering various forms of subsidies; FDI的定义 The flow of funding provided by an investro or lender (usually a firm) to establish or acquire a foreign company or to expand or finance an existing foreign company that the investor owns and controls; Any flow of lending to ,or purchases of ownership in ,a foreign firm in which the investor (usually a firm) has (or gains) ownership of 10 percent or more of the foreign firm 国际投资组合的定义 International portfolio investment is used for all foreign investments that do not involve management control(that is,all that are not direct investments). 跨国公司的定义和组成 A firm that owns and controls operations in more than one country is a multinational enterprise(MNE). MNEs parent firm – foreign affiliates; home country –host countries; MNE use flows of FDI to establish or finance its foreign affiliates; 跨国公司FDI的存量和流量分析 flows of FDI (measuring new equity investments and loans within MNEs during a period of time); stocks of FDI (measuring the total amount of direct investments that exist at a point in time); 跨国公司为什么存在 Why do MNEs exist?–the eclectic approach by John Dunning: inherent disadvantages of veing foreign; firm-specific advantages (to overcome the inherent disadvantages); location factors (that favor foreign production over exporting); internalizaiton advantages (that favor direct investment over contracting with independent firms); oliopolistic rivalry (among multinational enterprises). 国家对跨国公司利润的征税以及跨国公司的应对策略 1 host-country government taxes the profits of the local affiliates; home-country government taxes the parent company's “local“ profits earned on its own activities; home country government usu. Avoid double taxation of the foreign affiliate profits; tax rates vary across host countries. 2 MNEs try to minimize the total taxes that they pay. So: MNE can shop around among countries and locate its affiliates in the jurisdictions of govrenments offering lower tax rates; MNE can use transfer pricing and other devices to trport more of their prodits in low-tax countries, even if the profits were acturally earned in high-tax countries. 转移定价理论和福利分析(共6种,税前和税后分别对世界福利、投资母国的福利、东道国的福利影响) 1 Transfer pricing: the setting by the company of prices (or monetary values) for things that move btw. units of the company; including materials and components, dinished products, the rights to use technology and brand names, and financila capital. Governments' attitude towards price transfer: attempt to polce transfer pricing to ensure that the transfer prices used between units within a MNE are similar to the market prices that independent firms would pay to each other for similar transactions. 2 Welfare analysis is to be seen at Textbook,Ch 14,the table of page 353. 贸易与FDI的关系 Complement:as long as transport costs and trade barriers are low enough, FDI can be used to reduce total costs by locating different stages of overall production in difffernt countries which leads to more trade; Substitute:when scale economies are less important, or when transport costs and trade barriers are higher, foreign production through direct investment substitute for international trade; Most studies conclude that FDI, on average, is somewhat complemenatray to international trade. 投资母国应不应该限制资本外流? The effect on workers and others who provide inputs into production in the home country; The effecs on the owners of the multinational enterprieses based in this home country; The effects on the government budget, esp. the effects on government tax revenues; Any external benefits ro costs associated with direct investments out of the country. 东道国应不应该限制资本内流? Direct economic effects: Workers in the host country gain form increased demand for their services, as do other suppliers of inputs to the affiliates of foreign multinationals; The host country government gains from the taxes collected on affiliate profits, as long as these exceed the extra xosts of any additional governmnet services provided to the affiliates; Domestic firms that must compete with the affiliates lose. Indirect economic effects: positive externatlities such as technology, marketing capabilites, and managerial skills to the host country. -----------
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